Which Statement About John James Audubon or His Art Is True?

American self-trained artist, naturalist, and ornithologist

John James Audubon FRS
Portrait of Audubon by John Syme, 1826
Born	Jean-Jacques Rabin (1785-04-26)April 26, 1785 Les Cayes, Saint-Domingue (subsequently Haiti)
Died	January 27, 1851(1851-01-27) (aged 65) New York City, New York, U.S.
Citizenship	France and Usa
Occupation	cocky-trained creative person, Naturalist, ornithologist
Spouse(s)	Lucy Bakewell ​ (m. 1808)​
Signature

John James Audubon (born Jean Rabin; Apr 26, 1785 – January 27, 1851) was an American self-trained artist, naturalist, and ornithologist. His combined interests in fine art and ornithology turned into a program to make a complete pictoral record of all the bird species of N America.^[1] He was notable for his extensive studies documenting all types of American birds and for his detailed illustrations, which depicted the birds in their natural habitats. His major work, a color-plate book titled The Birds of America (1827–1839), is considered one of the finest ornithological works ever completed. Audubon is also known for identifying 25 new species. He is the eponym of the National Audubon Society, and his proper noun adorns a large number of towns, neighborhoods, and streets in every part of the United States.^[2] Dozens of scientific names commencement published by Audubon are currently in utilize by the scientific community.^[3]

Amidst contempo reappraisal of figures involved with slavery, the Audubon Naturalist Society announced in October 2021 that they intended to alter the name, citing Audubon's ownership of slaves, opposition to the abolition of slavery, and his back up for the supposed inferiority of black and ethnic people.^[four]

Early on life [edit]

Audubon was born in Les Cayes in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (at present Haiti)^[five] on his father's sugarcane plantation. He was the son of Lieutenant Jean Audubon, a French naval officer (and privateer) from the s of Brittany,^[6] and his mistress, Jeanne Rabine,^[7] a 27-year-former chambermaid from Les Touches, Brittany (now in the modern region Pays de la Loire).^{[six] [8]} They named him Jean Rabin.^[8] Another 1887 biographer has stated that his mother was a lady from a Louisiana plantation.^[nine] His mother died when he was a few months quondam, equally she had suffered from tropical disease since arriving on the island. His begetter already had an unknown number of mixed-race children (among them a girl named Marie-Madeleine),^[ten] some by his mixed-race housekeeper, Catherine "Sanitte" Bouffard^[x] (described as a quadroon, meaning she was three-quarters European in beginnings).^[xi] Following Jeanne Rabin's death, Audubon renewed his relationship with Sanitte Bouffard and had a daughter by her, named Muguet. Bouffard also took intendance of the infant boy Jean.^[12]

The senior Audubon had allowable ships. During the American Revolution, he had been imprisoned past Great britain. Later on his release, he helped the American crusade.^[thirteen] He had long worked to save coin and secure his family's future with real manor. Due to slave unrest in the Caribbean area, in 1789 he sold part of his plantation in Saint-Domingue and purchased a 284-acre farm called Mill Grove, twenty miles from Philadelphia, to diversify his investments. Increasing tension in Saint-Domingue between the colonists and the African slaves, who greatly outnumbered them, convinced the senior Jean Audubon to return to France, where he became a fellow member of the Republican Guard. In 1788 he arranged for Jean and in 1791 for Muget to be transported to France.^{[14] [15] [16]}

La Gerbetière, mansion owned by Audubon'due south begetter in Couëron, where immature Audubon was raised

The children were raised in Couëron, near Nantes, French republic, by Audubon and his French wife, Anne Moynet Audubon, whom he had married years earlier his time in Saint-Domingue. In 1794 they formally adopted both the children to regularize their legal status in France.^[15] They renamed the boy Jean-Jacques Fougère Audubon and the girl Rose.^[17]

From his earliest days, Audubon had an affinity for birds. "I felt an intimacy with them...bordering on frenzy [that] must back-trail my steps through life."^[eighteen] His father encouraged his interest in nature:

He would point out the elegant movement of the birds, and the beauty and softness of their plume. He called my attending to their show of pleasure or sense of danger, their perfect forms and fantabulous attire. He would speak of their deviation and return with the seasons.^[19]

In French republic during the cluttered years of the French Revolution and its aftermath, the younger Audubon grew upwardly to be a handsome and gregarious man. He played flute and violin, and learned to ride, fence, and dance.^[xx] A bang-up walker, he loved roaming in the forest, often returning with natural curiosities, including birds' eggs and nests, of which he made crude drawings.^[21] His begetter planned to make a seaman of his son. At twelve, Audubon went to military school and became a cabin male child. He quickly found out that he was susceptible to seasickness and not fond of mathematics or navigation. Afterward failing the officer's qualification test, Audubon ended his incipient naval career. He was cheerfully back on solid basis and exploring the fields again, focusing on birds.^[22]

Immigration to the United States [edit]

In 1803, his father obtained a simulated passport so that Jean-Jacques could go to the United states to avert conscription in the Napoleonic Wars. xviii-year-sometime Jean-Jacques boarded ship, changing his name to the anglicized form John James Audubon.^[23] Jean Audubon and Claude Rozier arranged a business concern partnership for their sons John James Audubon and [Jean Ferdinand Rozier] to pursue lead mining in Pennsylvania. The Audubon-Rozier partnership was based on Claude Rozier's buying half of Jean Audubon'southward share of a plantation in Haiti, and lending money to the partnership as secured by half interest in lead mining at Audubon'south property of Factory Grove.^{[24] [25]}

Audubon caught yellowish fever upon arrival in New York City. The ship'due south captain placed him in a boarding house run by Quaker women. They nursed Audubon to recovery and taught him English, including the Quaker form of using "thee" and "g", otherwise then archaic. He traveled with the family'south Quaker lawyer to the Audubon family farm Manufactory Grove.^[26] The 284-acre (115 ha) homestead is located on the Perkiomen Creek a few miles from Valley Forge.

Audubon lived with the tenants in the two-story rock business firm, in an expanse that he considered a paradise. "Hunting, line-fishing, drawing, and music occupied my every moment; cares I knew not, and cared naught about them."^[twenty] Studying his environs, Audubon quickly learned the ornithologist's rule, which he wrote downwardly as, "The nature of the identify—whether loftier or low, moist or dry, whether sloping northward or south, or begetting tall trees or low shrubs—generally gives hint as to its inhabitants."^[27]

Plate i of The Birds of America by Audubon depicting a wild turkey

His father hoped that the atomic number 82 mines on the belongings could be commercially developed, as pb was an essential component of bullets. This could provide his son with a profitable occupation.^[28] At Factory Grove, Audubon met the owner of the nearby Fatland Ford estate, William Bakewell, and his daughter Lucy Bakewell.

Audubon set about to study American birds, adamant to illustrate his findings in a more realistic style than about artists did then.^[29] He began drawing and painting birds, and recording their behavior. After an accidental autumn into a creek, Audubon contracted a severe fever. He was nursed and recovered at Fatland Ford, with Lucy at his side.

Risking conscription in France, Audubon returned in 1805 to meet his father and ask permission to marry. He also needed to hash out family business plans. While there, he met the naturalist and physician Charles-Marie D'Orbigny, who improved Audubon's taxidermy skills and taught him scientific methods of research.^[30] Although his return ship was overtaken past an English privateer, Audubon and his hidden gold coins survived the come across.^[31]

Audubon resumed his bird studies and created his own nature museum, perhaps inspired by the great museum of natural history created by Charles Willson Peale in Philadelphia. Peale'due south bird exhibits were considered scientifically advanced. Audubon's room was brimming with birds' eggs, blimp raccoons and opossums, fish, snakes, and other creatures. He had become proficient at specimen grooming and taxidermy.

Deeming the mining venture too risky, with his father's approval Audubon sold office of the Mill Grove farm, including the firm and mine, but retaining some land for investment.^[32]

Banding experiment with Eastern Phoebes [edit]

In book 2 of Ornithological Biography (1834), Audubon told a story from his childhood, 30 years after the events reportedly took place, that has since garnered him the characterization of "showtime bird bander in America".^[33] The story has since been exposed equally likely apocryphal.^[34] In the leap of 1804, according to the story, Audubon discovered a nest of the "Pewee Flycatcher", now known as Eastern Phoebe (Sayornis phoebe), in a small grotto on the holding of Mill Grove. To make up one's mind whether the other phoebes on the property were "descended from the same stock", Audubon (1834:126) said that he tied silver threads to the legs of five nestlings:

I took the whole family unit out, and blew off the exuviae of the feathers from the nest. I attached light threads to their legs: these they invariably removed, either with their bills, or with the help of their parents. I renewed them, however, until I found the petty fellows habituated to them; and at last, when they were about to leave the nest, I fixed a light silvery thread to the leg of each, loose enough not to hurt the part, but then fastened that no exertions of theirs could remove it.^[35]

He also said that he had "ample proof afterwards that the brood of immature Pewees, raised in the cave, returned the following leap, and established themselves farther upwards on the creek, and among the outhouses in the neighbourhood … having caught several of these birds on the nest, [he] had the pleasance of finding that two of them had the little ring on the leg", just multiple independent primary sources (including original, dated drawings of European species^[36]) demonstrate that Audubon was in French republic during the spring of 1805, not in Pennsylvania equally he later claimed.^[34] Furthermore, Audubon'south claim to accept re-sighted 2 out of 5 of the banded phoebes equally adults (i.e., a 40% rate of natal philopatry) has not been replicated past modern studies with much larger sample sizes (e.g., one.6% rate among 549 nestlings banded; and 1.iii% charge per unit amongst 217 nestlings banded).^[37] These facts bandage doubt on the truth of Audubon's story.^[34]

Union and family [edit]

Plate from The Birds of America by Audubon of a Carolina dove (now chosen mourning dove)

In 1808, Audubon moved to Kentucky, which was quickly existence settled. Vi months afterward, he married Lucy Bakewell at her family estate, Fatland Ford, and took her the adjacent twenty-four hours to Kentucky. The two young people shared many common interests, and early on began to spend time together, exploring the natural earth around them. Though their finances were tenuous, the Audubons started a family unit. They had two sons, Victor Gifford (1809–1860) and John Woodhouse Audubon (1812–1862), and two daughters who died while still young, Lucy at two years (1815–1817) and Rose at nine months (1819–1820).^[38] Both sons eventually helped publish their begetter'south works. John W. Audubon became a naturalist, writer, and painter in his own right.^[39]

Starting out in business organization [edit]

Audubon and Jean Ferdinand Rozier moved their merchant concern partnership due west at various stages, ending ultimately in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri, a one-time French colonial settlement west of the Mississippi River and s of St. Louis. Shipping goods alee, Audubon and Rozier started a general shop in Louisville, Kentucky on the Ohio River;^{[ when? ]} the city had an increasingly of import slave marketplace and was the nigh important port betwixt Pittsburgh and New Orleans. Soon he was cartoon bird specimens over again. He regularly burned his earlier efforts to strength continuous improvement.^[forty] He besides took detailed field notes to document his drawings.

Due to rising tensions with the British, President Jefferson ordered an embargo on British trade in 1808, adversely affecting Audubon'due south trading business.^[41] In 1810, Audubon moved his business farther due west to the less competitive Henderson, Kentucky, area. He and his small family took over an abandoned log motel. In the fields and forests, Audubon wore typical frontier clothes and moccasins, having "a ball pouch, a buffalo horn filled with gunpowder, a butcher knife, and a tomahawk on his belt".^[41]

He frequently turned to hunting and fishing to feed his family unit, equally business was slow. On a prospecting trip downwardly the Ohio River with a load of goods, Audubon joined upwardly with Shawnee and Osage hunting parties, learning their methods, drawing specimens by the bonfire, and finally parting "like brethren".^[42] Audubon had great respect for Native Americans: "Whenever I meet Indians, I feel the greatness of our Creator in all its splendor, for at that place I see the homo naked from His manus and yet gratuitous from acquired sorrow."^[43] Audubon also admired the skill of Kentucky riflemen and the "regulators", citizen lawmen who created a kind of justice on the Kentucky frontier. In his travel notes, he claims to have encountered Daniel Boone.^[44]

Audubon and Rozier mutually agreed to end their partnership at Ste. Genevieve on Apr 6, 1811. Audubon had decided to piece of work at ornithology and art, and wanted to return to Lucy and their son in Kentucky. Rozier agreed to pay Audubon U.s.$iii,000 (equivalent to $48,858 in 2021), with $1,000 in cash and the residual to be paid over time.^{[45] [46] [47]}

The terms of the dissolution of the partnership include those by Audubon:

I John Audubon, having this solar day common consent with Ferdinand Rozier, dissolved and forever closed the partnership and business firm of Audubon and Rozier, and having Received from said Ferdinand Rozier payment and notes to the total amount of my part of the goods and debts of the late house of Audubon and Rozier, I the said John Audubon one of the house aforesaid exercise hereby release and forever quit claim to all and whatsoever interest which I have or may have in the stock on hand and debts due to the late firm of Audubon and Rozier assign, transfer and set over to said Ferdinand Rozier, all my rights, titles, claims and involvement in the goods, merchandise and debts due to the late business firm of Audubon and Rozier, and do hereby qualify and empower him for my part, to collect the same in whatever manner what always either privately or by suit or suits in law or equity hereby declaring him sole and absolute proprietor and rightful owner of all appurtenances, trade and debts of this firm aforesaid, as completely as they were the appurtenances and holding of the late firm Audubon and Rozier.

In witness thereof I take set my hand and seal this 6th solar day of April 1811

John Audubon

Ed D. DeVillamonte

John James Audubon house, Henderson, Kentucky.

Audubon was working in Missouri and out riding when the 1811 New Madrid convulsion struck. When Audubon reached his house, he was relieved to find no major damage, but the expanse was shaken by aftershocks for months.^[48] The quake is estimated by scholars to have ranked from 8.4 to 8.8 on today's moment magnitude scale of severity, stronger than the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 which is estimated at vii.eight. Audubon writes that while on horseback, he outset believed the distant rumbling to be the audio of a tornado,

but the animal knew ameliorate than I what was forthcoming, and instead of going faster, so nearly stopped that I remarked he placed one foot afterward some other on the basis with as much precaution every bit if walking on a smooth piece of ice. I thought he had suddenly foundered, and, speaking to him, was on point of dismounting and leading him, when he suddenly fell a-groaning piteously, hung his caput, spread out his forelegs, equally if to save himself from falling, and stood stock all the same, continuing to groan. I idea my equus caballus was nearly to dice, and would have sprung from his back had a minute more elapsed; simply as that instant all the shrubs and copse began to move from their very roots, the ground rose and fell in successive furrows, like the ruffled h2o of a lake, and I became bewildered in my ideas, as I also plainly discovered, that all this awful commotion was the issue of an earthquake. I had never witnessed annihilation of the kind before, although similar every person, I knew earthquakes by description. Simply what is clarification compared to reality! Who tin can tell the sensations which I experienced when I establish myself rocking, as information technology were, upon my horse, and with him moving to and fro like a kid in a cradle, with the almost imminent danger around me.^[49]

He noted that as the earthquake retreated, "the air was filled with an extremely disagreeable sulphurous odor."^[50]

Citizenship and debt [edit]

A cinnamon bear by J.T. Bowen subsequently Audubon

During a visit to Philadelphia in 1812 following Congress' announcement of war against Great Britain, Audubon became an American citizen and had to surrender his French citizenship.^[51] Later his return to Kentucky, he establish that rats had eaten his entire collection of more than than 200 drawings. After weeks of low, he took to the field again, adamant to re-exercise his drawings to an even higher standard.^[52]

The State of war of 1812 upset Audubon's plans to motility his business to New Orleans. He formed a partnership with Lucy's brother and built up their trade in Henderson. Between 1812 and the Panic of 1819, times were adept. Audubon bought country and slaves, founded a flour factory, and enjoyed his growing family unit. Afterward 1819, Audubon went bankrupt and was thrown into jail for debt. The petty coin he earned was from drawing portraits, particularly death-bed sketches, profoundly esteemed by country folk before photography.^[53] He wrote, "[K]y heart was sorely heavy, for scarcely had I enough to go on my dearest ones alive; and nonetheless through these dark days I was being led to the evolution of the talents I loved."^[54]

Early ornithological career [edit]

Plate 181 of The Birds of America by Audubon depicting a gold eagle, 1833–34

Audubon worked for a brief time equally the first paid employee of the Western History Social club, at present known as The Museum of Natural History at The Cincinnati Museum Center.^[55] He then traveled southward on the Mississippi with his gun, paintbox, and assistant Joseph Mason, who stayed with him from October 1820 to Baronial 1822 and painted the plant life backgrounds of many of Audubon's bird studies. He was committed to find and paint all the birds of N America for eventual publication. His goal was to surpass the before ornithological piece of work of poet-naturalist Alexander Wilson.^[56] Though he could non afford to buy Wilson'southward work, Audubon used it to guide him when he had admission to a copy.

In 1818, Rafinesque visited Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to study fishes and was a guest of Audubon. In the middle of the night, Rafinesque noticed a bat in his room and thought it was a new species. He happened to catch Audubon's favourite violin in an effort to knock the bat downwards, resulting in the destruction of the violin. Audubon reportedly took revenge by showing drawings and describing some fictitious fishes and rodents to Rafinesque; Rafinesque gave scientific names to some of these fishes in his Ichthyologia Ohiensis.^{[57] [58]}

On October 12, 1820, Audubon traveled into Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida in search of ornithological specimens. He traveled with George Lehman, a professional Swiss landscape artist. The following summer, he moved upriver to the Oakley Plantation in Feliciana Parish, Louisiana, where he taught drawing to Eliza Pirrie, the young daughter of the owners. Though depression-paying, the job was ideal, every bit it afforded him much fourth dimension to roam and paint in the woods. (The plantation has been preserved equally the Audubon State Historic Site, and is located at 11788 Highway 965, betwixt Jackson and St. Francisville.)

Audubon called his future piece of work The Birds of America. He attempted to paint one page each day. Painting with newly discovered technique, he decided his earlier works were inferior and re-did them.^[59] He hired hunters to get together specimens for him. Audubon realized the aggressive project would accept him away from his family for months at a time.

Audubon sometimes used his drawing talent to trade for goods or sell small works to raise cash. He fabricated charcoal portraits on demand at $5 each and gave drawing lessons.^[sixty] In 1823, Audubon took lessons in oil painting technique from John Steen, a instructor of American landscape, and history painter Thomas Cole. Though he did not use oils much for his bird work, Audubon earned practiced money painting oil portraits for patrons along the Mississippi. (Audubon's account reveals that he learned oil painting in December 1822 from Jacob Stein, an itinerant portrait artist. Later on they had enjoyed all the portrait patronage to be expected in Natchez, Mississippi, during January–March 1823, they resolved to travel together as perambulating portrait-artists.)^{[61] [62]} During this menstruum (1822–1823), Audubon also worked as an instructor at Jefferson College in Washington, Mississippi.

Lucy became the steady breadwinner for the couple and their two young sons. Trained every bit a teacher, she conducted classes for children in their home. Later she was hired as a local instructor in Louisiana. She boarded with their children at the home of a wealthy plantation owner, as was often the custom of the time.^{[61] [63]}

In 1824, Audubon returned to Philadelphia to seek a publisher for his bird drawings. He took oil painting lessons from Thomas Sully and met Charles Bonaparte, who admired his work and recommended he become to Europe to accept his bird drawings engraved.^[64] Audubon was nominated for membership at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia by Charles Alexandre Lesueur, Reuben Haines, and Isaiah Lukens, on July 27, 1824.^[65] However, he failed to gather enough support, and his nomination was rejected by vote on August 31, 1824;^[65] around the aforementioned fourth dimension accusations of scientific misconduct were levied past Alexander Lawson and others.^[66]

The Birds of America [edit]

With his wife's back up, in 1826 at historic period 41, Audubon took his growing drove of work to England. He sailed from New Orleans to Liverpool on the cotton-hauling transport Delos, reaching England in the autumn of 1826 with his portfolio of over 300 drawings.^[67] With letters of introduction to prominent Englishmen, and paintings of imaginary species including the "Bird of Washington",^[68] Audubon gained their quick attention. "I have been received here in a manner not to be expected during my highest enthusiastic hopes."^[69]

The British could not go enough of Audubon'south images of backwoods America and its natural attractions. He met with not bad acceptance as he toured around England and Scotland, and was lionized as "the American woodsman". He raised enough money to brainstorm publishing his The Birds of America. This monumental work consists of 435 mitt-colored, life-size prints of 497 bird species, made from engraved copper plates of various sizes depending on the size of the prototype. They were printed on sheets measuring virtually 39 by 26 inches (990 by 660 mm).^[70] The work illustrates slightly more than 700 North American bird species, of which some were based on specimens collected by fellow ornithologist John Kirk Townsend on his journey beyond America with Thomas Nuttall in 1834 as function of Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth's 2nd expedition across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Body of water.^{[71] [72]}

The pages were organized for creative effect and contrasting interest, as if the reader were taking a visual tour. (Some critics thought he should have organized the plates in Linnaean gild as conforming a "serious" ornithological treatise.)^[73] The first and possibly well-nigh famous plate was the wild turkey. Amidst the primeval plates printed was the "Bird of Washington", which generated favorable publicity for Audubon as his first discovery of a new species. However, no specimen of the species has ever been found, and research published in 2020 suggests that this plate was a mixture of plagiarism and ornithological fraud.^[74]

The cost of printing the entire work was $115,640 (over $2,000,000 today), paid for from advance subscriptions, exhibitions, oil painting commissions, and animal skins, which Audubon hunted and sold.^[70] Audubon'southward great work was a remarkable accomplishment. It took more than 14 years of field observations and drawings, plus his single-handed management and promotion of the project to make it a success. A reviewer wrote,

All anxieties and fears which overshadowed his work in its start had passed away. The prophecies of kind but overprudent friends, who did not understand his self-sustaining energy, had proved untrue; the malicious promise of his enemies, for even the gentle lover of nature has enemies, had been disappointed; he had secured a commanding identify in the respect and gratitude of men.^[75]

Colorists applied each color in assembly-line way (over fifty were hired for the piece of work).^[76] The original edition was engraved in aquatint past Robert Havell, Jr., who took over the chore after the starting time ten plates engraved by Due west. H. Lizars were deemed inadequate. Known as the Double Elephant page for its double elephant newspaper size, it is often regarded as the greatest picture book ever produced and the finest aquatint work. By the 1830s the aquatint process had been largely superseded by lithography.^[77] A gimmicky French critic wrote, "A magic power transported united states into the forests which for so many years this man of genius has trod. Learned and ignorant alike were astonished at the spectacle ... It is a real and palpable vision of the New Earth."^[78]

Audubon sold oil-painted copies of the drawings to make extra coin and publicize the book. A potential publisher had Audubon'due south portrait painted by John Syme, who clothed the naturalist in frontier clothes; the portrait was hung at the entrance of his exhibitions, promoting his rustic image. The painting is at present held in the White House art collection, and is not frequently displayed.^[79] The New-York Historical Gild holds all 435 of the preparatory watercolors for The Birds of America. Lucy Audubon sold them to the society afterward her husband's death. All but 80 of the original copper plates were melted downwardly when Lucy Audubon, desperate for money, sold them for scrap to the Phelps Dodge Corporation.^[eighty]

King George IV was amongst the avid fans of Audubon and subscribed to support publication of the book. Britain'due south Imperial Guild recognized Audubon's achievement past electing him as a boyfriend. He was the second American to be elected after statesman Benjamin Franklin. While in Edinburgh to seek subscribers for the book, Audubon gave a demonstration of his method of supporting birds with wire at professor Robert Jameson'due south Wernerian Natural History Association. Student Charles Darwin was in the audience. Audubon also visited the dissecting theatre of the anatomist Robert Knox. Audubon was besides successful in France, gaining the Rex and several of the nobility as subscribers.^[81]

The Birds of America became very popular during Europe's Romantic era.^[82] Audubon's dramatic portraits of birds appealed to people in this period'south fascination with natural history.^{[82] [83] [84]}

Later career [edit]

Audubon returned to America in 1829 to complete more than drawings for his magnum opus. He too hunted animals and shipped the valued skins to British friends. He was reunited with his family. Afterwards settling business organization affairs, Lucy accompanied him back to England. Audubon plant that during his absence, he had lost some subscribers due to the uneven quality of coloring of the plates. Others were in arrears in their payments. His engraver fixed the plates and Audubon reassured subscribers, only a few begged off. He responded, "The Birds of America will then heighten in value as much as they are now depreciated past certain fools and envious persons."^[85] He was elected a Beau of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences^[86] in 1830 and to the American Philosophical Society^[87] in 1831.

He followed The Birds of America with a sequel Ornithological Biographies. This was a collection of life histories of each species written with Scottish ornithologist William MacGillivray. The ii books were printed separately to avoid a British law requiring copies of all publications with text to be deposited in copyright libraries, a huge fiscal burden for the self-published Audubon.^[88] Both books were published between 1827 and 1839.

During the 1830s, Audubon connected making expeditions in Due north America. During a trip to Central Due west, a companion wrote in a newspaper commodity, "Mr. Audubon is the most enthusiastic and indefatigable homo I ever knew ... Mr. Audubon was neither dispirited past heat, fatigue, or bad luck ... he rose every forenoon at 3 o'clock and went out ... until ane o'clock." Then he would draw the residual of the day before returning to the field in the evening, a routine he kept up for weeks and months.^[89] In the posthumously published volumeThe Life of John James Audubon The Naturalist,^[49] edited by his widow and derived primarily from his notes, Audubon related visiting the northeastern Florida littoral sugar plantation of John Joachim Bulow for Christmas 1831/early January 1832. It was started by his father and at 4,675 acres, was the largest in Eastward Florida.^[90] Bulow had a sugar mill built there under direction of a Scottish engineer, who accompanied Audubon on an excursion in the region. The mill was destroyed in 1836 in the Seminole Wars. The plantation site is preserved today every bit the Bulow Plantation Ruins Historic State Park.^[90]

In March 1832, Audubon booked passage at St. Augustine, Florida, aboard the schooner Agnes, bound for Charleston, South Carolina. A gale forced the vessel to berth at the mouth of the Savannah River, where an officer of the United States Army Corps of Engineers on Cockspur Island where Fort Pulaski was under construction, transported Audubon upstream to Savannah, Georgia, on their barge. Just as he was about to board a Charleston-bound stage coach, he remembered William Gaston, a Savannah resident who had once befriended him. Audubon stayed at City Hotel, and the next day sought out and found the acquaintance, "who showed merely little enthusiasm for his Birds of America" and who doubted that the book would sell a unmarried copy in the city.^[91] A down-hearted Audubon continued to talk to the merchant and a mutual friend who, by chance, had appeared. The merchant, having further considered his position, said, "I subscribe to your piece of work", gave him $200 for the outset volume, and promised to act every bit his amanuensis in finding additional subscriptions.^[91]

In 1833, Audubon sailed northward from Maine, accompanied by his son John, and five other immature colleagues, to explore the ornithology of Labrador. On the return voyage, their ship Ripley fabricated a stop at St. George's, Newfoundland. At that place Audubon and his administration documented 36 species of birds.^[92]

Audubon painted some of his works while staying at the Key Westward house and gardens of Capt. John H. Geiger. This site was preserved equally the Audubon House and Tropical Gardens.^[93]

In 1841, having finished the Ornithological Biographies, Audubon returned to the United States with his family. He bought an estate on the Hudson River in northern Manhattan. (The roughly xx-acre estate came to be known every bit Audubon Park in the 1860s when Audubon's widow began selling off parcels of the estate for the development of free-standing unmarried family homes.)^[94] Between 1840 and 1844, he published an octavo edition of The Birds of America, with 65 additional plates.^[95] Printed in standard format to be more affordable than the oversize British edition, it earned $36,000 and was purchased by 1100 subscribers.^[96] Audubon spent much time on "subscription-gathering trips", drumming up sales of the octavo edition, as he hoped to get out his family a sizeable income.^[97]

Death [edit]

Audubon made some excursions out W where he hoped to record Western species he had missed, but his wellness began to fail. In 1848, he manifested signs of senility or perhaps dementia from what is at present called Alzheimer'due south disease, his "noble mind in ruins".^[98] He died at his family habitation in northern Manhattan on January 27, 1851. Audubon is buried in the graveyard at the Church of the Intercession in the Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum at 155th Street and Broadway in Manhattan, nearly his domicile. An imposing monument in his honor was erected at the cemetery, which is now recognized as function of the Heritage Rose Commune of NYC.^[99]

Audubon's final work dealt with mammals; he prepared The Viviparous Quadrupeds of Due north America (1845–1849) in collaboration with his good friend Rev. John Bachman of Charleston, S Carolina, who supplied much of the scientific text. His son, John Woodhouse Audubon, drew virtually of the plates. The work was completed past Audubon'due south sons, and the second volume was published posthumously in 1851.

Art and methods [edit]

Audubon adult his own methods for drawing birds. Offset, he killed them using fine shot. He and so used wires to prop them into a natural position, dissimilar the common method of many ornithologists, who prepared and blimp the specimens into a rigid pose. When working on a major specimen like an eagle, he would spend up to four xv-hour days, preparing, studying, and drawing it.^[100] His paintings of birds are set true-to-life in their natural habitat. He oftentimes portrayed them as if caught in move, especially feeding or hunting. This was in stark dissimilarity to the stiff representations of birds by his contemporaries, such every bit Alexander Wilson. Audubon based his paintings on his extensive field observations. He worked primarily with watercolor early on. He added colored chalk or pastel to add softness to feathers, specially those of owls and herons.^[101] He employed multiple layers of watercoloring, and sometimes used gouache. All species were fatigued life size which accounts for the contorted poses of the larger birds as Audubon strove to fit them inside the folio size.^[102] Smaller species were normally placed on branches with berries, fruit, and flowers. He used several birds in a drawing to present all views of anatomy and wings. Larger birds were oftentimes placed in their ground habitat or perching on stumps. At times, as with woodpeckers, he combined several species on ane folio to offer contrasting features. He oft depicted the birds' nests and eggs, and occasionally natural predators, such every bit snakes. He usually illustrated male and female variations, and sometimes juveniles. In later drawings, Audubon used assistants to render the habitat for him. In improver to faithful renderings of beefcake, Audubon also employed carefully constructed limerick, drama, and slightly exaggerated poses to accomplish artistic equally well equally scientific effects.

• 

  Detail from the side by side prototype

Dispute over accuracy [edit]

The success of Birds of America may be considered to be marred past numerous accusations of plagiarism and scientific fraud.^{[34] [68] [103] [66] [104]} Research has uncovered that Audubon falsified (and made) scientific data,^{[58] [105]} published fraudulent data and images in scientific journals and commercial books,^{[34] [68] [103]} invented new species to print potential subscribers,^[68] and to "prank" rivals,^{[58] [105]} and about likely stole the holotype specimen of Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi) before pretending non to know its collector, who was one of his subscribers.^[106] He failed to credit work by Joseph Bricklayer, prompting a series of articles in 1835 by critic John Neal questioning Audubon'south honesty and trustworthiness.^[107] Audubon also repeatedly lied about the details of his autobiography, including the place and circumstances of his birth.^[108]

The litany of misconduct in Audubon'south scientific career has fatigued comparisons to others such as Richard Meinertzhagen.^[68] Similar to early biographies of Meinertzhagen, Audubon's scientific misconduct has been repeatedly ignored and/or downplayed by biographers,^{[34] [68] [104]} who defend Ornithological Biography as a "valuable resource and a very good read".^[109]

Legacy [edit]

Audubon in later years, c. 1850

Audubon'south influence on ornithology and natural history was far reaching. Most all later ornithological works were inspired past his artistry and high standards. Charles Darwin quoted Audubon three times in On the Origin of Species and also in later works.^[110] Despite some errors in field observations, he fabricated a pregnant contribution to the agreement of bird beefcake and behavior through his field notes. The Birds of America is nevertheless considered i of the greatest examples of volume fine art. Audubon discovered 25 new species and 12 new subspecies.^[111]

• He was elected to the Imperial Society of Edinburgh, the Linnean Order, and the Royal Society in recognition of his contributions.
• The homestead Mill Grove in Audubon, Pennsylvania, is open to the public and contains a museum presenting all his major works, including The Birds of America.
• The Audubon Museum at John James Audubon Land Park in Henderson, Kentucky, houses many of Audubon's original watercolors, oils, engravings and personal memorabilia.
• In 1905, the National Audubon Society was incorporated and named in his award. Its mission "is to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds ..."
• He was honored in 1940 by the Us Post Part with a 1 cent Famous Americans Series postage stamp stamp; the stamp is green.
• He was honored by the United states of america Post with a 22¢ Nifty Americans series postage stamp.
• On December 6, 2010, a copy of The Birds of America was sold at a Sotheby's sale for $eleven.5 one thousand thousand, the second highest toll for a single printed volume.^[112]
• On April 26, 2011, Google celebrated his 226th birthday past displaying a special Google Putter on its global homepage.^[113]
• Audubon'due south life and contributions to science and fine art was the subject of the 2017 film Audubon.

Audubon in popular culture [edit]

Audubon is the subject area of the 1969 volume-length poem, Audubon: A Vision past Robert Penn Warren.^[114] Stephen Vincent Benét, with his wife Rosemary Benét, included a poem nigh Audubon in the children's poetry book A Book of Americans.^[115]

Audubon's 1833 trip to Labrador is the subject field of the novel Creation by Katherine Govier.^[116] Audubon and his wife, Lucy, are the chief characters in the "June" section of the Maureen Howard novel Big every bit Life: Three Tales for Spring.^[117] In the novel Audubon's Scout, John Gregory Brown explores a mysterious death that took place on a Louisiana plantation when Audubon worked there as a fellow.^[118]

George Voskovec plays Audubon in the 1952 American picture The Atomic number 26 Mistress, which stars Alan Ladd equally James Bowie. The moving picture imagines a friendship betwixt the two men.

In 1985, The National Gallery of Art 20C History Project produced a documentary, "John James Audubon: The Birds of America", now widely available online.

In July 2007, PBS's American Masters serial aired an episode titled "John James Audubon: Drawn from Nature," ^[119] Supplemental material is available on the PBS website.

Audubon appears in the short story "Audubon In Atlantis" by Harry Turtledove, published in the 2010 drove Atlantis and Other Places.^[120]

The choral oratorio Audubon past James Kallembach was premiered on November 9, 2018, in Boston, Massachusetts by Chorus pro Musica.^[121] The piece of work depicts scenes of Audubon's life and descriptions of the birds he drew with text drawn from the 2004 biography by Richard Rhodes.^[122]

Places named in his honor [edit]

• Audubon Park and Zoo in New Orleans, where he lived beginning in 1821.
• Audubon and Audubon Park, both in New Bailiwick of jersey. Many streets in Audubon Park are named after birds drawn past him.
• Audubon, Pennsylvania, also has the Audubon Bird Sanctuary. Near of the streets in this small town are named after birds that he drew.
• Audubon Nature Found, a family unit of museums, parks, and other organizations in New Orleans, eight of which bear the Audubon name.
• Audubon Park and land club in Louisville, Kentucky, is in the area of his former general store.
• Several towns and Audubon Canton, Iowa.
• John James Audubon Span (Mississippi River), connecting Pointe Coupee and W Feliciana Parishes; over 30 of Audubon's bird paintings were created in West Feliciana Parish.
• The northbound span of the Bi-State Vietnam Gold Star Bridges was originally named the Audubon Memorial Bridge.
• Audubon Park, in Memphis, Tennessee, is associated with the nearby Botanic Garden.
• John James Audubon State Park and the Audubon Museum (located within the park) in Henderson, Kentucky.
• Audubon Parkway, also in Kentucky, is a express-admission highway connecting Henderson with Owensboro, Kentucky.
• Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Nantes and Rue Audubon in Paris, France.
• Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France.
• Lycée Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France.
• Marais Audubon between Couëron and St Etienne de Mont-luc, France.
• Audubon Circle, a major intersection and neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts; Park Drive (parkway), which runs through the Audubon Circle, was formerly named Audubon Road.
• John James Audubon Parkway in Amherst, New York.
• Audubon Avenue in New York, New York.
• Audubon Bird Sanctuary, Dauphin Island, Alabama^[123]
• Audubon National Wildlife Refuge, Coleharbor, North Dakota
• Audubon Park, a park and neighborhood in Northeast Minneapolis, Minnesota.
• Audubon Park, a park and neighborhood in Orlando, Florida. The streets are named afterward birds, such as Falcon Drive and Raven Road.
• Wildcat Glades Conservation and Audubon Center in Joplin, Missouri.
• Audubon International, a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit organization that administers a wide range of ecology educational activity and certification programs on properties such every bit golf courses, hotels, schoolhouse campuses, ski areas, cemeteries, corporate parks, and agricultural lands.^[124]
• The Scioto Audubon Metro Park in Columbus, Ohio^[125]
• Audubon Recreation Center in Garland, Texas.^[126]
• Mount Audubon (13223 ft), Colorado
• Audubon Loftier School in Camden County, New Jersey, and many primary schools around the United States
• Audubon Golf Trail - a drove of golf courses spread throughout Louisiana
• John James Audubon Simple School in Chicago, Illinois.^[127]
• Pascagoula River Audubon Eye in Moss Indicate, Mississippi.^[128]
• Audubon Firm & Gallery in Key Westward, Florida.^[129]
• Audubon Street, home to the Audubon Arts District and The Audubon New Haven flat building, in New Haven, Connecticut

Surviving bird specimens [edit]

Some of Audubon's bird specimens survive in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London,^[130] the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,^[131] and there are five specimens in the collections of Earth Museum, National Museums Liverpool.

Works [edit]

Posthumous collections [edit]

• John James Audubon, Selected Journals and Other Writings (Ben Forkner, ed.) (Penguin Nature Classics, 1996) ISBN 0-14-024126-4
• John James Audubon, Writings & Drawings (Christoph Irmscher, ed.) (The Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-883011-68-0
• John James Audubon, The Audubon Reader (Richard Rhodes, ed.) (Everyman Library, 2006) ISBN 1-4000-4369-7
• Audubon: Early Drawings (Richard Rhodes, Scott V. Edwards, Leslie A. Morris) (Harvard University Press and Houghton Library 2008) ISBN 978-0-674-03102-9
• John James Audubon, Audubon and His Journals (The European Journals 1826–1829, the Labrador Journal 1833, the Missouri River Journals 1843), edited by Maria Audubon, volumes i and 2, originally published past Charles Scribner'southward Sons in 1897 (in Wikisource).

See also [edit]

• Audubon House and Tropical Gardens, Central West, Florida
• Audubon International
• Audubon Mural Project
• Audubon Park Celebrated District, New York City
• Audubon State Historic Site, Westward Feliciana Parish, Louisiana
• List of wildlife artists
• National Audubon Society
• Passenger dove

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Oxford illustrated encyclopedia. Judge, Harry George., Toyne, Anthony. Oxford [England]: Oxford University Press. 1985–1993. p. 26. ISBN0-nineteen-869129-7. OCLC 11814265. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
2. ^ "Home". Audubon . Retrieved August half dozen, 2020.
3. ^ "Avibase advanced search: [Author = "Audubon"]". Avibase: The World Bird Database . Retrieved August half dozen, 2020.
4. ^ Milman, Oliver (October 25, 2021). "The states conservation grouping to driblet Audubon proper noun over 'hurting' caused past slaveholder". The Guardian.
5. ^ Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Messages. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 26. ISBN 0-86576-008-Ten
6. ^ ^{a b} Rhodes, Richard John James Audubon: The Making of an American, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004, p. 4, accessed April 26, 2011.
7. ^ Sometimes, information technology is written "Rabin"
8. ^ ^{a b} Souder 2005, p. eighteen
9. ^ The Pop science monthly. MBLWHOI Library. [New York, Popular Science Pub. Co., etc.] 1887. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
10. ^ ^{a b} DeLatt, Carolyne Eastward., Lucy Audubon: A Biography (LSU Printing, 2008), p. 21
11. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), p. half dozen
12. ^ Souder 2005, p. 19
13. ^ Alice Ford, Audubon Past Himself, The Natural History Press, Garden Urban center, NY: 1969, p. iv
14. ^ Rhodes, JJ Audubon (2004), p. vi
15. ^ ^{a b} Souder 2005, p. twenty
16. ^ Shirley Streshinsky, Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness, Villard Books, New York, 1993, ISBN 0-679-40859-2, p. 13
17. ^ Stanley Clisby Arthur, Audubon" An Intimate Life of the American Woodsman (Pelican Publishing, 1937), p. 478
18. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 22
19. ^ Ford 1969, p. three
20. ^ ^{a b} Rhodes 2004, p. 5
21. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. fourteen
22. ^ Streshinsky 1993, pp. sixteen–17
23. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), pp. three–iv
24. ^ Sharpe, Mary Rozier and James, Louis, Between the Gabouri, History of the Rozier Family, 1981
25. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), p.
26. ^ "National Gallery of Art". Nga.gov. Archived from the original on April 12, 2010. Retrieved Dec x, 2010.
27. ^ Ford 1969, p. x
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37. ^ Weatherhead, Patrick J.; Forbes, Mark R. L. (December i, 1994). "Natal philopatry in passerine birds: genetic or ecological influences?". Behavioral Ecology. 5 (4): 426–433. doi:10.1093/beheco/five.4.426. ISSN 1045-2249.
38. ^ "John James Audubon Timeline", American Masters, PBS. Retrieved February seven, 2009.
39. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and annals of important events of the year: 1862. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1863. p. 672.
40. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 55
41. ^ ^{a b} Streshinsky 1993, p. 64
42. ^ Rhodes 2004, pp. 83–85
43. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 166
44. ^ Ford 1969, p. 24
45. ^ Agreement from Francis Hobart Herrick, Ph.D., Sc.D.D., Audubon the Naturalist: A History of His Life and Time. Appleton and Company, New York, London, 1917, p. 359.
46. ^ Original hand-written receipt of the financial exchange per the Agreement, Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, Missouri. "Ste. Genevieve Apr 6, 1811, $ane,000.000, Half-dozen Months after date I promise to pay Mr. John Audubon or Orders I Thousand Dollars Value without (unreadable). Signed Ferdinand Rozier (signature torn off), Witnessed: John Lecite, John McAuthur"
47. ^ Rozier, Firmin A. (1890). History of the Early on Settlement of the Mississippi Valley.
48. ^ Ford 1969, p. 56
49. ^ ^{a b} His widow, ed. (1869). The Life of John James Audubon the Naturalist. New York: Chiliad. P. Putnam & Son.
50. ^ Ford 1969, p. 57
51. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 105
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55. ^ "An exhibition opening for In the Audubon Tradition". Cincy Museum Center . Retrieved November seven, 2019.
56. ^ Ford 1969, p. 25
57. ^ Markle, Douglas F. (1997). "Audubon's hoax: Ohio River fishes described by Rafinesque". Archives of Natural History. 24 (3): 439–447. doi:ten.3366/anh.1997.24.iii.439.
58. ^ ^{a b c} Woodman, Neal (2016). "Pranked by Audubon: Constantine S. Rafinesque's description of John James Audubon's imaginary Kentucky mammals" (PDF). Archives of Natural History. 43 (1): 95–108. doi:x.3366/anh.2016.0349.
59. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 209
60. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 102
61. ^ ^{a b} Punke, p. 21
62. ^ Arthur, pp. 256–57
63. ^ Arthur, pp. 258–59
64. ^ Punke, p. 225
65. ^ ^{a b} Halley, Matthew R. (2018). "Lost Tales of American Ornithology: Reuben Haines and the Canada Geese of Wyck (1818–1828)" (PDF). Cassinia. 76: 63.
66. ^ ^{a b} Dunlap, William (1834). History of the rising and progress of the arts of design in the United States, Volume 2. New York, NY: George P. Scott & Co., New York.
67. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 237
68. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Halley, Matthew R. (June 2020). "Audubon's Bird of Washington: unravelling the fraud that launched The birds of America". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 140 (2): 110–141. doi:10.25226/bboc.v140i2.2020.a3. ISSN 0007-1595.
69. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 261
70. ^ ^{a b} Rhodes 2004, p. 403
71. ^ Mearns, B. & R., John Kirk Townsend: Collector of Audubon'southward Western Birds and Mammals (2007)
72. ^ Townsend, John Kirk, Circuit to the Oregon, Edinburgh: W. and R. Chambers, 1846
73. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 303
74. ^ Halley, Matthew R. (June 22, 2020). "Audubon'southward Bird of Washington: unravelling the fraud that launched The birds of America". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Social club. 140 (two): 110–141. doi:ten.25226/bboc.v140i2.2020.a3.
75. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 328
76. ^ Rhodes 2004, pp. 273, 389
77. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 300
78. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 279
79. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 276
80. ^ "John James Audubon Chronicle", Cleveland Museum of Natural History, press release, Feb 1, 2007 Archived July 20, 2008, at the Wayback Motorcar
81. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 316
82. ^ ^{a b} National Audubon Society Inc. (n.d.) John James Audubon Retrieved from [1]
83. ^ Lyons, G. (2011). Books A Living History. Los Angeles, California: Getty Publications.
84. ^ Lyons 2011, pp. 135–36
85. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 392
86. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
87. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org . Retrieved Apr 8, 2021.
88. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 273
89. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 366
90. ^ ^{a b} "Dedication ceremonies for Bulow Plantation Ruins Historic State Park – Bunnell, Florida", Florida Memory, accessed March 14, 2015.
91. ^ ^{a b} Ease and Elegance, Madeira and Murder: The Social Life of Savannah's City Hotel, Malcolm Bell, Jr. (1992), p. 558
92. ^ Tuck, Leslie. Montevecchi, William. Nuttall Ornithological Club. Newfoundland Birds, Exploitation, Study, Conservation, Harvard Academy Press, 1987.
93. ^ Cox, C. 1983. A Central West Companion. Macmillan. pp. 49–51. ISBN 0-312-45183-0
94. ^ Almost, Jennifer L. et al. Audubon Park Historic Commune Designation Study New York Urban center Landmarks Preservation Commission (May 12, 2009), p. 3, paragraph 2.
95. ^ Audubon, John James (1840–1844). The Birds of America: From Drawings Made in the United States and their Territories. New York: J.B. Chevalier – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
96. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 430
97. ^ Chancellor, John (1978). Audubon : A Biography. New York: Viking Printing. p. 210. ISBN978-0-670-14053-4.
98. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 361
99. ^ "What is the Heritage Rose Commune of NYC?". mbpo.org. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011.
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102. ^ Gardner, Albert TenEyck (1963). "John James Audubon and Campephilus Principalis". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 21 (9): 309–316. doi:10.2307/3257944. ISSN 0026-1521. JSTOR 3257944.
103. ^ ^{a b} Ord, George (1840). "Minutes from the Stated Meeting, September eighteen [1840]". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Club. 1: 272.
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105. ^ ^{a b} MARKLE, DOUGLAS F. (October 1, 1997). "Audubon'south hoax: Ohio River fishes described by Rafinesque". Archives of Natural History. 24 (3): 439–447. doi:10.3366/anh.1997.24.3.439. ISSN 0260-9541.
106. ^ Fries, Waldemar H. (2006). The Double Elephant Folio. Zenaida Publishing Co. ISBN978-0-9770829-0-two.
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108. ^ DALLETT, FRANCIS JAMES (1959). "Citizen Audubon: A Documentary Discovery". The Princeton University Library Chronicle. 21 (1/2): 89–93. doi:ten.2307/26409602. ISSN 0032-8456. JSTOR 26409602.
109. ^ Nobles, Gregory (July 31, 2020). "The Myth of John James Audubon". Audubon.org.
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114. ^ Robert Penn Warren (October ane, 1998). The Nerveless Works of Robert Penn Warren. ISBN978-0-8071-2333-i . Retrieved October 26, 2014.
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117. ^ Howard, Maureen (2001). Large as Life: Three Tales for Spring. New York: Viking. ISBN0-670-89978-Ten.
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Bibliography [edit]

• Betimes. (1887) Sketch of J.J. Audubon. The Popular Science Monthly. pp. 687–692.
• Arthur, Stanley Clisby (1937). Audubon; An Intimate Life of the American Woodsman. New Orleans: Harmanson. OCLC 1162643 view excerpts online
• Audubon, Lucy Green Bakewell, ed. (1870). The Life of John James Audubon, the Naturalist. New York: G.P.Putnam & Sons.
• Burroughs, J. (1902). John James Audubon. Boston: Small, Maynard & company. OCLC 648935
• Chalmers, John (2003). Audubon in Edinburgh and his Scottish Associates. NMS Publishing, Edinburgh, 978 i 901663 79 2
• Ford, Alice (1969). Audubon Past Himself. Garden City NY: The Natural History Press
• Ford, Alice (1964; revised 1988). John James Audubon. University of Oklahoma Press
• Fulton, Maurice M. (1917). Southern Life in Southern Literature; selections of representative prose and poetry. Boston, New York [etc.]: Ginn and Co. OCLC 1496258 view online here
• Jackson E Christine (2013). John James Audubon and English Perspective Christine East Jackson
• Herrick, Francis Hobart (1917). Aububon the naturalist: A History of his Life and Time. D. Appleton and Company, New York. Volume IVolume II (combined second 1938 edition)
• Logan, Peter (2016). Audubon: America's Greatest Naturalist and His Voyage of Discovery to Labrador. San Francisco, California: Ashbryn Press. ISBN978-0-9972282-1-2.
• Olson, Roberta J.M. (2012). Audubon'southward Aviary: The Original Watercolors for The Birds of America. New York: Skira/Rizzoli and New-York Historical Guild. ISBN 978-0-8478-3483-nine
• Olson, Roberta J.M. (2021). "Hiding in Plain Sight: New Prove about the Birth, Identity, and Strategic Pseudonyms of John James Audubon". Message of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 163 (4): 129–150. doi:10.3099/MCZ70. ISSN 0027-4100. Discusses the serial of names assigned to Audubon every bit a youth.
• Punke, Michael (2007). Last Stand: George Bird Grinnell, the Battle to Save the Buffalo, and the Birth of the New West. Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-0-06-089782-half-dozen
• Rhodes, Richard (2004). John James Audubon: The Making of an American. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41412-half-dozen
• St. John, Mrs. Horace (1884). Life of Audubon, the naturalist of the New Globe, His Adventures and Discoveries. Philadelphia: J.B.Lippincott & Co.
• Small, E., Catling, Paul M., Cayouette, J., and Brookes, B (2009). Audubon: Beyond Birds: Plant Portraits and Conservation Heritage of John James Audubon. NRC Inquiry Printing, Ottawa, ISBN 978-0-660-19894-1
• Souder, William (2005) Under a Wild Sky: John James Audubon and the Making of The Birds of America. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-86547-726-4
• Streshinsky, Shirley (1993). Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness. New York: Villard Books, ISBN 0-679-40859-2

External links [edit]

• Audubon Birds of America at New York Historical Gild
• Works by John James Audubon at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or almost John James Audubon at Cyberspace Archive
• Works by John James Audubon at Toronto Public Library
• Works by John James Audubon at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• John James Audubon at American Art Gallery
• Audubon's Birds of America at the Academy of Pittsburgh, a complete high resolution digitization of all 435 double elephant folios too as his Ornithological Biography
• The John James Audubon Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University
• "Audubon biography", National Audubon Order
• "Louise Hauss and David Brent Miller Audubon Drove", Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art, Auburn University
• John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky
• Audubon'southward Birds of America, podcast from the Beinecke Library, Yale University
• John James Audubon and Audubon family messages, (ca. 1783–1845) from the Smithsonian Athenaeum of American Art
• View works by John James Audubon online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library.
• Watercolors for Birds of America at the New York Historical Society
• Burgwin Family unit Papers, 1844–1963, AIS.1971.14, Archives Service Center, University of Pittsburgh. Includes Audubon-Bakewell family materials.
• John James Audubon Drove at the Library of Congress
• Identification guide to Audubon print editions
• Blue jay: Corvus cristatus by John James Audubon at the Cleveland Public Library Art Drove
• Victor Gifford Audubon Collection. General Drove, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Audubon

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